diff --git a/backend/drm/drm.c b/backend/drm/drm.c
index d07d98afc..d4c110f10 100644
--- a/backend/drm/drm.c
+++ b/backend/drm/drm.c
@@ -1178,7 +1178,7 @@ static bool drm_connector_move_cursor(struct wlr_output *output,
 	struct wlr_box box = { .x = x, .y = y };
 
 	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, NULL, &width, &height);
 
 	enum wl_output_transform transform =
 		wlr_output_transform_invert(output->transform);
diff --git a/examples/cairo-buffer.c b/examples/cairo-buffer.c
index 6392b2ac5..0000744ae 100644
--- a/examples/cairo-buffer.c
+++ b/examples/cairo-buffer.c
@@ -116,6 +116,7 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	wlr_scene_output_build_state(output->scene_output, &state, NULL);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/fullscreen-shell.c b/examples/fullscreen-shell.c
index 956d851af..084f25138 100644
--- a/examples/fullscreen-shell.c
+++ b/examples/fullscreen-shell.c
@@ -79,18 +79,13 @@ static void render_surface(struct wlr_surface *surface,
 	wlr_surface_send_frame_done(surface, rdata->when);
 }
 
-static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct fullscreen_output *output =
-		wl_container_of(listener, output, frame);
-
+static void render(struct fullscreen_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
 	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(output->wlr_output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(output->wlr_output, state, &width, &height);
 
-	struct wlr_output_state state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(output->wlr_output, &state, NULL);
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(output->wlr_output, state, NULL);
 	if (pass == NULL) {
 		return;
 	}
@@ -110,6 +105,15 @@ static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
+}
+
+static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct fullscreen_output *output =
+		wl_container_of(listener, output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
+	render(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output->wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
@@ -169,6 +173,7 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/output-layers.c b/examples/output-layers.c
index 0535ff0b1..ec2b16bf5 100644
--- a/examples/output-layers.c
+++ b/examples/output-layers.c
@@ -61,8 +61,9 @@ struct output {
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 };
 
-static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct output *output = wl_container_of(listener, output, frame);
+static void render_and_commit(struct output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
+	int width, height;
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(output->wlr_output, state, &width, &height);
 
 	struct wl_array layers_arr = {0};
 	struct output_surface *output_surface;
@@ -81,22 +82,19 @@ static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 		};
 	}
 
-	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
-	wlr_output_state_set_layers(&output_state, layers_arr.data,
-		layers_arr.size / sizeof(struct wlr_output_layer_state));
+	// don't submit output layers for modeset or enable.
+	if ((state->committed & (WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE | WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_ENABLED)) == 0) {
+		wlr_output_state_set_layers(state, layers_arr.data,
+			layers_arr.size / sizeof(struct wlr_output_layer_state));
 
-	if (!wlr_output_test_state(output->wlr_output, &output_state)) {
-		wlr_log(WLR_ERROR, "wlr_output_test_state() failed");
-		return;
+		if (!wlr_output_test_state(output->wlr_output, state)) {
+			wlr_log(WLR_ERROR, "wlr_output_test_state() failed");
+			return;
+		}
 	}
 
-	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(output->wlr_output, &width, &height);
-
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(output->wlr_output, &output_state, NULL);
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(output->wlr_output, state, NULL);
 	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = width, .height = height },
 		.color = { 0.3, 0.3, 0.3, 1 },
 	});
 
@@ -125,9 +123,6 @@ static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
 
-	wlr_output_commit_state(output->wlr_output, &output_state);
-	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
-
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
 
@@ -154,9 +149,19 @@ static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 		output_surface->first_commit = false;
 	}
 
+	wlr_output_commit_state(output->wlr_output, state);
 	wl_array_release(&layers_arr);
 }
 
+static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct output *output = wl_container_of(listener, output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
+	render_and_commit(output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
+}
+
 static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct server *server = wl_container_of(listener, server, new_output);
 	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = data;
@@ -178,7 +183,7 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
+	render_and_commit(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 
 	wlr_output_create_global(wlr_output, server->wl_display);
diff --git a/examples/output-layout.c b/examples/output-layout.c
index c481ddf80..dca532584 100644
--- a/examples/output-layout.c
+++ b/examples/output-layout.c
@@ -107,17 +107,11 @@ static void animate_cat(struct sample_state *sample,
 	sample->ts_last = ts;
 }
 
-static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct sample_output *output = wl_container_of(listener, output, frame);
+static void render(struct sample_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(output->output, state, NULL);
 	struct sample_state *sample = output->sample;
-	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = output->output;
-
-	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, &output_state, NULL);
 
 	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = wlr_output->width, .height = wlr_output->height },
 		.color = { 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 1 },
 	});
 
@@ -141,7 +135,15 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
+}
+
+static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct sample_output *output = wl_container_of(listener, output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
+	render(output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_commit_state(output->output, &output_state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 }
 
@@ -182,6 +184,7 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(sample_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/pointer.c b/examples/pointer.c
index f3ef5435e..64853f1e6 100644
--- a/examples/pointer.c
+++ b/examples/pointer.c
@@ -92,28 +92,29 @@ static void warp_to_touch(struct sample_state *state,
 	wlr_cursor_warp_absolute(state->cursor, dev, x, y);
 }
 
-static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
-	struct sample_state *state = sample_output->state;
-	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = sample_output->output;
-	struct wlr_renderer *renderer = state->renderer;
-	assert(renderer);
-
-	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, &output_state, NULL);
+static void render(struct sample_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
+	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = output->output;
+	struct sample_state *sample_state = output->state;
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, state, NULL);
 	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = wlr_output->width, .height = wlr_output->height },
 		.color = {
-			state->clear_color[0],
-			state->clear_color[1],
-			state->clear_color[2],
-			state->clear_color[3],
+			sample_state->clear_color[0],
+			sample_state->clear_color[1],
+			sample_state->clear_color[2],
+			sample_state->clear_color[3],
 		},
 	});
 	wlr_output_add_software_cursors_to_render_pass(wlr_output, pass, NULL);
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
+}
+
+static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
+	render(sample_output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_commit_state(sample_output->output, &output_state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 }
 
@@ -280,6 +281,7 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(sample_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/rotation.c b/examples/rotation.c
index 18bfbd38d..82f517ea0 100644
--- a/examples/rotation.c
+++ b/examples/rotation.c
@@ -47,27 +47,25 @@ struct sample_keyboard {
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
 
-static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
-	struct sample_state *sample = sample_output->sample;
-	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = sample_output->output;
+static void render (struct sample_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
 
-	int32_t width, height;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(wlr_output, &width, &height);
 
-	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, &output_state, NULL);
+	struct sample_state *sample = output->sample;
+	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = output->output;
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, state, NULL);
+
+	int32_t width, height;
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(wlr_output, state, &width, &height);
+
 
 	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = wlr_output->width, .height = wlr_output->height },
 		.color = { 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 1 },
 	});
 
-	for (int y = -128 + (int)sample_output->y_offs; y < height; y += 128) {
-		for (int x = -128 + (int)sample_output->x_offs; x < width; x += 128) {
+	for (int y = -128 + (int)output->y_offs; y < height; y += 128) {
+		for (int x = -128 + (int)output->x_offs; x < width; x += 128) {
 			wlr_render_pass_add_texture(pass, &(struct wlr_render_texture_options){
 				.texture = sample->cat_texture,
 				.dst_box = { .x = x, .y = y },
@@ -77,24 +75,32 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
-	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 
 	long ms = (now.tv_sec - sample->last_frame.tv_sec) * 1000 +
 		(now.tv_nsec - sample->last_frame.tv_nsec) / 1000000;
 	float seconds = ms / 1000.0f;
+	output->x_offs += output->x_vel * seconds;
+	output->y_offs += output->y_vel * seconds;
+	if (output->x_offs > 128) {
+		output->x_offs = 0;
+	}
+	if (output->y_offs > 128) {
+		output->y_offs = 0;
+	}
 
-	sample_output->x_offs += sample_output->x_vel * seconds;
-	sample_output->y_offs += sample_output->y_vel * seconds;
-	if (sample_output->x_offs > 128) {
-		sample_output->x_offs = 0;
-	}
-	if (sample_output->y_offs > 128) {
-		sample_output->y_offs = 0;
-	}
 	sample->last_frame = now;
 }
 
+static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
+	render(sample_output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_commit_state(sample_output->output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
+}
+
 static void update_velocities(struct sample_state *sample,
 		float x_diff, float y_diff) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output;
@@ -137,6 +143,7 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(sample_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/scene-graph.c b/examples/scene-graph.c
index 421986534..e57ce9c90 100644
--- a/examples/scene-graph.c
+++ b/examples/scene-graph.c
@@ -86,6 +86,7 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	wlr_scene_output_build_state(output->scene_output, &state, NULL);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 
diff --git a/examples/simple.c b/examples/simple.c
index d16708654..dd0690ce7 100644
--- a/examples/simple.c
+++ b/examples/simple.c
@@ -39,11 +39,25 @@ struct sample_keyboard {
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
 
+static void render(struct sample_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
+	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = output->output;
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, state, NULL);
+	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
+		.box = { .width = wlr_output->width, .height = wlr_output->height },
+		.color = {
+			.r = output->sample->color[0],
+			.g = output->sample->color[1],
+			.b = output->sample->color[2],
+			.a = output->sample->color[3],
+		},
+	});
+	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
+}
+
 static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output =
 		wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
 	struct sample_state *sample = sample_output->sample;
-	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = sample_output->output;
 
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
@@ -63,19 +77,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, &state, NULL);
-	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = wlr_output->width, .height = wlr_output->height },
-		.color = {
-			.r = sample->color[0],
-			.g = sample->color[1],
-			.b = sample->color[2],
-			.a = sample->color[3],
-		},
-	});
-	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
-
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
+	render(sample_output, &state);
+	wlr_output_commit_state(sample_output->output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 	sample->last_frame = now;
 }
@@ -111,6 +114,7 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(sample_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/tablet.c b/examples/tablet.c
index 78666fff7..32adf5f44 100644
--- a/examples/tablet.c
+++ b/examples/tablet.c
@@ -77,22 +77,18 @@ struct sample_keyboard {
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
 
-static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
-	struct sample_state *sample = sample_output->sample;
-	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = sample_output->output;
+static void render(struct sample_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
 
+	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = output->output;
+	struct sample_state *sample = output->sample;
+
 	int32_t width, height;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(wlr_output, &width, &height);
-
-	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, &output_state, NULL);
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(wlr_output, state, &width, &height);
 
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, state, NULL);
 	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = wlr_output->width, .height = wlr_output->height },
 		.color = { 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 1 },
 	});
 
@@ -157,11 +153,19 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
-	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 	sample->last_frame = now;
 }
 
+static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
+	render(sample_output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_commit_state(sample_output->output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
+}
+
 static void tablet_tool_axis_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct tablet_tool_state *tstate = wl_container_of(listener, tstate, axis);
 	struct wlr_tablet_tool_axis_event *event = data;
@@ -285,6 +289,7 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(sample_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/examples/touch.c b/examples/touch.c
index b891837a4..23bba2c28 100644
--- a/examples/touch.c
+++ b/examples/touch.c
@@ -63,22 +63,16 @@ struct sample_keyboard {
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
 
-static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
-	struct sample_state *sample = sample_output->sample;
+static void render(struct sample_output *output, struct wlr_output_state *state) {
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
 
-	struct wlr_output *wlr_output = sample_output->output;
-
 	int32_t width, height;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(wlr_output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(output->output, state, &width, &height);
+	struct sample_state *sample = output->sample;
 
-	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
-	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(wlr_output, &output_state, NULL);
+	struct wlr_render_pass *pass = wlr_output_begin_render_pass(output->output, state, NULL);
 	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.box = { .width = width, .height = height },
 		.color = { 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 1 },
 	});
 
@@ -93,11 +87,19 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
-	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
-	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 	sample->last_frame = now;
 }
 
+static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, frame);
+
+	struct wlr_output_state output_state;
+	wlr_output_state_init(&output_state);
+	render(sample_output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_commit_state(sample_output->output, &output_state);
+	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
+}
+
 static void touch_down_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct wlr_touch_down_event *event = data;
 	struct touch_state *tstate = wl_container_of(listener, tstate, down);
@@ -188,6 +190,7 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	if (mode != NULL) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
+	render(sample_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 }
diff --git a/include/types/wlr_output.h b/include/types/wlr_output.h
index 2dc979c66..5784efdec 100644
--- a/include/types/wlr_output.h
+++ b/include/types/wlr_output.h
@@ -12,8 +12,6 @@ bool output_pending_enabled(struct wlr_output *output,
 bool output_pick_format(struct wlr_output *output,
 	const struct wlr_drm_format_set *display_formats,
 	struct wlr_drm_format *format, uint32_t fmt);
-bool output_ensure_buffer(struct wlr_output *output,
-	struct wlr_output_state *state, bool *new_back_buffer);
 
 bool output_cursor_set_texture(struct wlr_output_cursor *cursor,
 	struct wlr_texture *texture, bool own_texture, const struct wlr_fbox *src_box,
diff --git a/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h b/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h
index 9c08a2c34..0e45f4697 100644
--- a/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h
+++ b/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h
@@ -339,12 +339,12 @@ void wlr_output_destroy(struct wlr_output *output);
  * Computes the transformed output resolution.
  */
 void wlr_output_transformed_resolution(struct wlr_output *output,
-	int *width, int *height);
+	const struct wlr_output_state *state, int *width, int *height);
 /**
  * Computes the transformed and scaled output resolution.
  */
 void wlr_output_effective_resolution(struct wlr_output *output,
-	int *width, int *height);
+	const struct wlr_output_state *state, int *width, int *height);
 /**
  * Test whether this output state would be accepted by the backend. If this
  * function returns true, wlr_output_commit_state() will only fail due to a
diff --git a/tinywl/tinywl.c b/tinywl/tinywl.c
index 89837b4fb..404aedc98 100644
--- a/tinywl/tinywl.c
+++ b/tinywl/tinywl.c
@@ -604,6 +604,20 @@ static void server_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	 * and our renderer. Must be done once, before commiting the output */
 	wlr_output_init_render(wlr_output, server->allocator, server->renderer);
 
+	/* Adds this to the output layout. The add_auto function arranges outputs
+	 * from left-to-right in the order they appear. A more sophisticated
+	 * compositor would let the user configure the arrangement of outputs in the
+	 * layout.
+	 *
+	 * The output layout utility automatically adds a wl_output global to the
+	 * display, which Wayland clients can see to find out information about the
+	 * output (such as DPI, scale factor, manufacturer, etc).
+	 */
+	struct wlr_output_layout_output *l_output = wlr_output_layout_add_auto(server->output_layout,
+		wlr_output);
+	struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(server->scene, wlr_output);
+	wlr_scene_output_layout_add_output(server->scene_layout, l_output, scene_output);
+
 	/* The output may be disabled, switch it on. */
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
@@ -619,6 +633,11 @@ static void server_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 		wlr_output_state_set_mode(&state, mode);
 	}
 
+	/* When enabling an output, wlroots requires that a buffer is also included
+	 * in that commit to enable the output.
+	 */
+	wlr_scene_output_build_state(scene_output, &state, NULL);
+
 	/* Atomically applies the new output state. */
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
@@ -641,20 +660,6 @@ static void server_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wl_signal_add(&wlr_output->events.destroy, &output->destroy);
 
 	wl_list_insert(&server->outputs, &output->link);
-
-	/* Adds this to the output layout. The add_auto function arranges outputs
-	 * from left-to-right in the order they appear. A more sophisticated
-	 * compositor would let the user configure the arrangement of outputs in the
-	 * layout.
-	 *
-	 * The output layout utility automatically adds a wl_output global to the
-	 * display, which Wayland clients can see to find out information about the
-	 * output (such as DPI, scale factor, manufacturer, etc).
-	 */
-	struct wlr_output_layout_output *l_output = wlr_output_layout_add_auto(server->output_layout,
-		wlr_output);
-	struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(server->scene, wlr_output);
-	wlr_scene_output_layout_add_output(server->scene_layout, l_output, scene_output);
 }
 
 static void xdg_toplevel_map(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/types/output/cursor.c b/types/output/cursor.c
index 154b91120..89f1cb2a9 100644
--- a/types/output/cursor.c
+++ b/types/output/cursor.c
@@ -89,8 +89,9 @@ static void output_cursor_get_box(struct wlr_output_cursor *cursor,
 
 void wlr_output_add_software_cursors_to_render_pass(struct wlr_output *output,
 		struct wlr_render_pass *render_pass, const pixman_region32_t *damage) {
+	// TODO: pass output state from caller
 	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, NULL, &width, &height);
 
 	struct wlr_output_cursor *cursor;
 	wl_list_for_each(cursor, &output->cursors, link) {
@@ -152,7 +153,7 @@ static void output_cursor_damage_whole(struct wlr_output_cursor *cursor) {
 static void output_cursor_update_visible(struct wlr_output_cursor *cursor) {
 	struct wlr_box output_box;
 	output_box.x = output_box.y = 0;
-	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(cursor->output, &output_box.width,
+	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(cursor->output, NULL, &output_box.width,
 		&output_box.height);
 
 	struct wlr_box cursor_box;
diff --git a/types/output/output.c b/types/output/output.c
index a352a5e59..9407895bb 100644
--- a/types/output/output.c
+++ b/types/output/output.c
@@ -441,21 +441,32 @@ void wlr_output_destroy(struct wlr_output *output) {
 }
 
 void wlr_output_transformed_resolution(struct wlr_output *output,
-		int *width, int *height) {
-	if (output->transform % 2 == 0) {
-		*width = output->width;
-		*height = output->height;
-	} else {
-		*width = output->height;
-		*height = output->width;
+		const struct wlr_output_state *state, int *width, int *height) {
+	output_pending_resolution(output, state, width, height);
+
+	enum wl_output_transform transform = output->transform;
+	if (state && state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_TRANSFORM) {
+		transform = state->transform;
+	}
+
+	if (transform % 2 != 0) {
+		int tmp = *width;
+		*width = *height;
+		*height = tmp;
 	}
 }
 
 void wlr_output_effective_resolution(struct wlr_output *output,
-		int *width, int *height) {
-	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, width, height);
-	*width /= output->scale;
-	*height /= output->scale;
+	const struct wlr_output_state *state, int *width, int *height) {
+	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, state, width, height);
+
+	float scale = output->scale;
+	if (state && state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_SCALE) {
+		scale = state->scale;
+	}
+
+	*width /= scale;
+	*height /= scale;
 }
 
 struct wlr_output_mode *wlr_output_preferred_mode(struct wlr_output *output) {
@@ -476,7 +487,7 @@ struct wlr_output_mode *wlr_output_preferred_mode(struct wlr_output *output) {
 
 void output_pending_resolution(struct wlr_output *output,
 		const struct wlr_output_state *state, int *width, int *height) {
-	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE) {
+	if (state && state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE) {
 		switch (state->mode_type) {
 		case WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE_FIXED:
 			*width = state->mode->width;
@@ -610,6 +621,12 @@ static bool output_basic_test(struct wlr_output *output,
 		}
 	}
 
+	if ((state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_RENDER_FORMAT) &&
+			(state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_BUFFER) == 0) {
+		wlr_log(WLR_DEBUG, "Tried to change the render format without a buffer.");
+		return false;
+	}
+
 	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_RENDER_FORMAT) {
 		struct wlr_allocator *allocator = output->allocator;
 		assert(allocator != NULL);
@@ -625,8 +642,13 @@ static bool output_basic_test(struct wlr_output *output,
 		wlr_drm_format_finish(&format);
 	}
 
-	bool enabled = output_pending_enabled(output, state);
+	if ((state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_ENABLED) && state->enabled &&
+			(state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_BUFFER) == 0) {
+		wlr_log(WLR_DEBUG, "Tried to enable an output without a buffer");
+		return false;
+	}
 
+	bool enabled = output_pending_enabled(output, state);
 	if (enabled && (state->committed & (WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_ENABLED |
 			WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE))) {
 		int pending_width, pending_height;
@@ -699,16 +721,7 @@ bool wlr_output_test_state(struct wlr_output *output,
 		return true;
 	}
 
-	bool new_back_buffer = false;
-	if (!output_ensure_buffer(output, &copy, &new_back_buffer)) {
-		return false;
-	}
-
-	bool success = output->impl->test(output, &copy);
-	if (new_back_buffer) {
-		wlr_buffer_unlock(copy.buffer);
-	}
-	return success;
+	return output->impl->test(output, &copy);
 }
 
 bool output_prepare_commit(struct wlr_output *output, const struct wlr_output_state *state) {
@@ -770,28 +783,16 @@ bool wlr_output_commit_state(struct wlr_output *output,
 		return false;
 	}
 
-	bool new_back_buffer = false;
-	if (!output_ensure_buffer(output, &pending, &new_back_buffer)) {
-		return false;
-	}
-
 	if (!output_prepare_commit(output, &pending)) {
 		return false;
 	}
 
 	if (!output->impl->commit(output, &pending)) {
-		if (new_back_buffer) {
-			wlr_buffer_unlock(pending.buffer);
-		}
 		return false;
 	}
 
 	output_apply_commit(output, &pending);
 
-	if (new_back_buffer) {
-		wlr_buffer_unlock(pending.buffer);
-	}
-
 	return true;
 }
 
diff --git a/types/output/render.c b/types/output/render.c
index 155da5cf8..f841fe87c 100644
--- a/types/output/render.c
+++ b/types/output/render.c
@@ -38,100 +38,6 @@ bool wlr_output_init_render(struct wlr_output *output,
 	return true;
 }
 
-static struct wlr_buffer *output_acquire_empty_buffer(struct wlr_output *output,
-		const struct wlr_output_state *state) {
-	assert(!(state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_BUFFER));
-
-	// wlr_output_configure_primary_swapchain() function will call
-	// wlr_output_test_state(), which can call us again. This is dangerous: we
-	// risk infinite recursion. However, a buffer will always be supplied in
-	// wlr_output_test_state(), which will prevent us from being called.
-	if (!wlr_output_configure_primary_swapchain(output, state,
-			&output->swapchain)) {
-		return NULL;
-	}
-
-	struct wlr_buffer *buffer = wlr_swapchain_acquire(output->swapchain);
-	if (buffer == NULL) {
-		return NULL;
-	}
-
-	struct wlr_render_pass *pass =
-		wlr_renderer_begin_buffer_pass(output->renderer, buffer, NULL);
-	if (pass == NULL) {
-		wlr_buffer_unlock(buffer);
-		return NULL;
-	}
-
-	wlr_render_pass_add_rect(pass, &(struct wlr_render_rect_options){
-		.color = { 0, 0, 0, 0 },
-		.blend_mode = WLR_RENDER_BLEND_MODE_NONE,
-	});
-
-	if (!wlr_render_pass_submit(pass)) {
-		wlr_buffer_unlock(buffer);
-		return NULL;
-	}
-
-	return buffer;
-}
-
-// This function may attach a new, empty buffer if necessary.
-// If so, the new_back_buffer out parameter will be set to true.
-bool output_ensure_buffer(struct wlr_output *output,
-		struct wlr_output_state *state, bool *new_buffer) {
-	assert(*new_buffer == false);
-
-	// If we already have a buffer, we don't need to allocate a new one
-	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_BUFFER) {
-		return true;
-	}
-
-	// If the compositor hasn't called wlr_output_init_render(), they will use
-	// their own logic to attach buffers
-	if (output->renderer == NULL) {
-		return true;
-	}
-
-	bool enabled = output->enabled;
-	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_ENABLED) {
-		enabled = state->enabled;
-	}
-
-	// If we're lighting up an output or changing its mode, make sure to
-	// provide a new buffer
-	bool needs_new_buffer = false;
-	if ((state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_ENABLED) && state->enabled) {
-		needs_new_buffer = true;
-	}
-	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE) {
-		needs_new_buffer = true;
-	}
-	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_RENDER_FORMAT) {
-		needs_new_buffer = true;
-	}
-	if (state->allow_reconfiguration && output->commit_seq == 0 && enabled) {
-		// On first commit, require a new buffer if the compositor called a
-		// mode-setting function, even if the mode won't change. This makes it
-		// so the swapchain is created now.
-		needs_new_buffer = true;
-	}
-	if (!needs_new_buffer) {
-		return true;
-	}
-
-	wlr_log(WLR_DEBUG, "Attaching empty buffer to output for modeset");
-	struct wlr_buffer *buffer = output_acquire_empty_buffer(output, state);
-	if (buffer == NULL) {
-		return false;
-	}
-
-	*new_buffer = true;
-	wlr_output_state_set_buffer(state, buffer);
-	wlr_buffer_unlock(buffer);
-	return true;
-}
-
 void wlr_output_lock_attach_render(struct wlr_output *output, bool lock) {
 	if (lock) {
 		++output->attach_render_locks;
diff --git a/types/scene/wlr_scene.c b/types/scene/wlr_scene.c
index d64ee4ada..ad134e21d 100644
--- a/types/scene/wlr_scene.c
+++ b/types/scene/wlr_scene.c
@@ -339,7 +339,7 @@ static void logical_to_buffer_coords(pixman_region32_t *region, const struct ren
 
 static void output_to_buffer_coords(pixman_region32_t *damage, struct wlr_output *output) {
 	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, NULL, &width, &height);
 
 	wlr_region_transform(damage, damage,
 		wlr_output_transform_invert(output->transform), width, height);
@@ -445,7 +445,7 @@ static void update_node_update_outputs(struct wlr_scene_node *node,
 			.x = scene_output->x,
 			.y = scene_output->y,
 		};
-		wlr_output_effective_resolution(scene_output->output,
+		wlr_output_effective_resolution(scene_output->output, NULL,
 			&output_box.width, &output_box.height);
 
 		pixman_region32_t intersection;
@@ -1579,7 +1579,7 @@ static void scene_output_handle_damage(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data)
 	struct wlr_output_event_damage *event = data;
 
 	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_transformed_resolution(output, NULL, &width, &height);
 
 	pixman_region32_t damage;
 	pixman_region32_init(&damage);
@@ -2337,7 +2337,7 @@ static void scene_output_for_each_scene_buffer(const struct wlr_box *output_box,
 void wlr_scene_output_for_each_buffer(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 		wlr_scene_buffer_iterator_func_t iterator, void *user_data) {
 	struct wlr_box box = { .x = scene_output->x, .y = scene_output->y };
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(scene_output->output,
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(scene_output->output, NULL,
 		&box.width, &box.height);
 	scene_output_for_each_scene_buffer(&box, &scene_output->scene->tree.node, 0, 0,
 		iterator, user_data);
diff --git a/types/wlr_output_layout.c b/types/wlr_output_layout.c
index ef2751179..fe4a297fd 100644
--- a/types/wlr_output_layout.c
+++ b/types/wlr_output_layout.c
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ static void output_layout_output_get_box(
 		struct wlr_box *box) {
 	box->x = l_output->x;
 	box->y = l_output->y;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(l_output->output,
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(l_output->output, NULL,
 		&box->width, &box->height);
 }
 
diff --git a/types/wlr_screencopy_v1.c b/types/wlr_screencopy_v1.c
index c49ed6bdf..9bdf0dcb8 100644
--- a/types/wlr_screencopy_v1.c
+++ b/types/wlr_screencopy_v1.c
@@ -573,7 +573,7 @@ static void capture_output(struct wl_client *wl_client,
 		buffer_box.height = output->height;
 	} else {
 		int ow, oh;
-		wlr_output_effective_resolution(output, &ow, &oh);
+		wlr_output_effective_resolution(output, NULL, &ow, &oh);
 
 		buffer_box = *box;
 
diff --git a/types/wlr_xdg_output_v1.c b/types/wlr_xdg_output_v1.c
index 262123987..6b86d2d68 100644
--- a/types/wlr_xdg_output_v1.c
+++ b/types/wlr_xdg_output_v1.c
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ static void output_update(struct wlr_xdg_output_v1 *xdg_output) {
 	}
 
 	int width, height;
-	wlr_output_effective_resolution(layout_output->output, &width, &height);
+	wlr_output_effective_resolution(layout_output->output, NULL, &width, &height);
 	if (xdg_output->width != width || xdg_output->height != height) {
 		xdg_output->width = width;
 		xdg_output->height = height;