diff --git a/backend/drm/drm.c b/backend/drm/drm.c
index d2f75f71f..21bae02a2 100644
--- a/backend/drm/drm.c
+++ b/backend/drm/drm.c
@@ -2081,10 +2081,6 @@ static void handle_page_flip(int fd, unsigned seq,
 		.flags = present_flags,
 	};
 	wlr_output_send_present(&conn->output, &present_event);
-
-	if (drm->session->active) {
-		wlr_output_send_frame(&conn->output);
-	}
 }
 
 int handle_drm_event(int fd, uint32_t mask, void *data) {
diff --git a/backend/headless/output.c b/backend/headless/output.c
index 0464e0d1b..d6206ac47 100644
--- a/backend/headless/output.c
+++ b/backend/headless/output.c
@@ -22,15 +22,6 @@ static struct wlr_headless_output *headless_output_from_output(
 	return output;
 }
 
-static void output_update_refresh(struct wlr_headless_output *output,
-		int32_t refresh) {
-	if (refresh <= 0) {
-		refresh = HEADLESS_DEFAULT_REFRESH;
-	}
-
-	output->frame_delay = 1000000 / refresh;
-}
-
 static bool output_test(struct wlr_output *wlr_output,
 		const struct wlr_output_state *state) {
 	uint32_t unsupported = state->committed & ~SUPPORTED_OUTPUT_STATE;
@@ -55,25 +46,16 @@ static bool output_test(struct wlr_output *wlr_output,
 
 static bool output_commit(struct wlr_output *wlr_output,
 		const struct wlr_output_state *state) {
-	struct wlr_headless_output *output =
-		headless_output_from_output(wlr_output);
-
 	if (!output_test(wlr_output, state)) {
 		return false;
 	}
 
-	if (state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE) {
-		output_update_refresh(output, state->custom_mode.refresh);
-	}
-
 	if (output_pending_enabled(wlr_output, state)) {
 		struct wlr_output_event_present present_event = {
 			.commit_seq = wlr_output->commit_seq + 1,
 			.presented = true,
 		};
 		output_defer_present(wlr_output, present_event);
-
-		wl_event_source_timer_update(output->frame_timer, output->frame_delay);
 	}
 
 	return true;
@@ -94,7 +76,6 @@ static void output_destroy(struct wlr_output *wlr_output) {
 	wlr_output_finish(wlr_output);
 
 	wl_list_remove(&output->link);
-	wl_event_source_remove(output->frame_timer);
 	free(output);
 }
 
@@ -110,12 +91,6 @@ bool wlr_output_is_headless(const struct wlr_output *wlr_output) {
 	return wlr_output->impl == &output_impl;
 }
 
-static int signal_frame(void *data) {
-	struct wlr_headless_output *output = data;
-	wlr_output_send_frame(&output->wlr_output);
-	return 0;
-}
-
 struct wlr_output *wlr_headless_add_output(struct wlr_backend *wlr_backend,
 		unsigned int width, unsigned int height) {
 	struct wlr_headless_backend *backend =
@@ -136,8 +111,6 @@ struct wlr_output *wlr_headless_add_output(struct wlr_backend *wlr_backend,
 	wlr_output_init(wlr_output, &backend->backend, &output_impl, backend->event_loop, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 
-	output_update_refresh(output, 0);
-
 	size_t output_num = ++last_output_num;
 
 	char name[64];
@@ -148,8 +121,6 @@ struct wlr_output *wlr_headless_add_output(struct wlr_backend *wlr_backend,
 	snprintf(description, sizeof(description), "Headless output %zu", output_num);
 	wlr_output_set_description(wlr_output, description);
 
-	output->frame_timer = wl_event_loop_add_timer(backend->event_loop, signal_frame, output);
-
 	wl_list_insert(&backend->outputs, &output->link);
 
 	if (backend->started) {
diff --git a/backend/wayland/backend.c b/backend/wayland/backend.c
index 0d294b543..e171ff544 100644
--- a/backend/wayland/backend.c
+++ b/backend/wayland/backend.c
@@ -581,6 +581,11 @@ bool wlr_backend_is_wl(const struct wlr_backend *b) {
 	return b->impl == &backend_impl;
 }
 
+bool wlr_wl_backend_has_presentation_time(struct wlr_backend *wlr_backend) {
+	struct wlr_wl_backend *backend = get_wl_backend_from_backend(wlr_backend);
+	return backend->presentation != NULL;
+}
+
 static void handle_event_loop_destroy(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct wlr_wl_backend *wl = wl_container_of(listener, wl, event_loop_destroy);
 	backend_destroy(&wl->backend);
diff --git a/backend/wayland/output.c b/backend/wayland/output.c
index c3442f411..d677c751b 100644
--- a/backend/wayland/output.c
+++ b/backend/wayland/output.c
@@ -72,8 +72,6 @@ static void surface_frame_callback(void *data, struct wl_callback *cb,
 	assert(output->frame_callback == cb);
 	wl_callback_destroy(cb);
 	output->frame_callback = NULL;
-
-	wlr_output_send_frame(&output->wlr_output);
 }
 
 static const struct wl_callback_listener frame_listener = {
diff --git a/backend/x11/output.c b/backend/x11/output.c
index 40e601f0b..c9c8cfdd5 100644
--- a/backend/x11/output.c
+++ b/backend/x11/output.c
@@ -795,8 +795,6 @@ void handle_x11_present_event(struct wlr_x11_backend *x11,
 		};
 		timespec_from_nsec(&present_event.when, complete_notify->ust * 1000);
 		wlr_output_send_present(&output->wlr_output, &present_event);
-
-		wlr_output_send_frame(&output->wlr_output);
 		break;
 	default:
 		wlr_log(WLR_DEBUG, "Unhandled Present event %"PRIu16, event->event_type);
diff --git a/examples/cairo-buffer.c b/examples/cairo-buffer.c
index 6392b2ac5..2eb3b7264 100644
--- a/examples/cairo-buffer.c
+++ b/examples/cairo-buffer.c
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_scene.h>
 #include <wlr/util/log.h>
@@ -104,10 +105,10 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct output *output = calloc(1, sizeof(*output));
 	output->wlr = wlr_output;
 	output->server = server;
-	output->frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&wlr_output->events.frame, &output->frame);
 
 	output->scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(server->scene, wlr_output);
+	output->frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->scene_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &output->frame);
 
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
diff --git a/examples/embedded.c b/examples/embedded.c
index f0f661198..647c8e38b 100644
--- a/examples/embedded.c
+++ b/examples/embedded.c
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend/wayland.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_compositor.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_scene.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_xdg_shell.h>
 #include <wlr/util/log.h>
@@ -220,10 +221,10 @@ int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
 	wl_subsurface_set_position(subsurface, 20, 20);
 	struct wlr_output *output = wlr_wl_output_create_from_surface(backend, child_surface);
 	wlr_output_init_render(output, allocator, renderer);
-	scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(scene, output);
 
+	scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(scene, output);
 	output_frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &output_frame);
+	wl_signal_add(&scene_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &output_frame);
 
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
diff --git a/examples/output-layers.c b/examples/output-layers.c
index 0535ff0b1..187eaa4de 100644
--- a/examples/output-layers.c
+++ b/examples/output-layers.c
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_compositor.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_drm.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_linux_dmabuf_v1.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output_layer.h>
@@ -56,6 +57,7 @@ struct output {
 	struct wl_list link;
 	struct server *server;
 	struct wlr_output *wlr_output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_list surfaces;
 
 	struct wl_listener frame;
@@ -155,6 +157,8 @@ static void output_handle_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 
 	wl_array_release(&layers_arr);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
@@ -167,10 +171,12 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	output->wlr_output = wlr_output;
 	output->server = server;
 	wl_list_init(&output->surfaces);
-	output->frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&wlr_output->events.frame, &output->frame);
 	wl_list_insert(&server->outputs, &output->link);
 
+	output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(wlr_output);
+	output->frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &output->frame);
+
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
 	wlr_output_state_set_enabled(&state, true);
@@ -181,6 +187,8 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(output->frame_scheduler);
+
 	wlr_output_create_global(wlr_output, server->wl_display);
 }
 
diff --git a/examples/output-layout.c b/examples/output-layout.c
index c481ddf80..607b9703e 100644
--- a/examples/output-layout.c
+++ b/examples/output-layout.c
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend/session.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_input_device.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output_layout.h>
@@ -37,6 +38,7 @@ struct sample_state {
 struct sample_output {
 	struct sample_state *sample;
 	struct wlr_output *output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
@@ -143,6 +145,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void update_velocities(struct sample_state *sample,
@@ -157,6 +161,7 @@ static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_layout_remove(sample->layout, sample_output->output);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->frame.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->destroy.link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(sample_output);
 }
 
@@ -170,7 +175,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_layout_add_auto(sample->layout, output);
 	sample_output->output = output;
 	sample_output->sample = sample;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
+	sample_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	wl_signal_add(&sample_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
 	sample_output->frame.notify = output_frame_notify;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.destroy, &sample_output->destroy);
 	sample_output->destroy.notify = output_remove_notify;
@@ -184,6 +190,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void keyboard_key_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/examples/pointer.c b/examples/pointer.c
index f3ef5435e..fa306f007 100644
--- a/examples/pointer.c
+++ b/examples/pointer.c
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_cursor.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output_layout.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_pointer.h>
@@ -62,6 +63,7 @@ struct touch_point {
 struct sample_output {
 	struct sample_state *state;
 	struct wlr_output *output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
@@ -115,6 +117,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_render_pass_submit(pass);
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void handle_cursor_motion(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
@@ -255,6 +259,7 @@ static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_layout_remove(sample->layout, sample_output->output);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->frame.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->destroy.link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(sample_output);
 }
 
@@ -267,7 +272,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = calloc(1, sizeof(*sample_output));
 	sample_output->output = output;
 	sample_output->state = sample;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
+	sample_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	wl_signal_add(&sample_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
 	sample_output->frame.notify = output_frame_notify;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.destroy, &sample_output->destroy);
 	sample_output->destroy.notify = output_remove_notify;
@@ -282,6 +288,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 
diff --git a/examples/rotation.c b/examples/rotation.c
index 18bfbd38d..33b85b9a4 100644
--- a/examples/rotation.c
+++ b/examples/rotation.c
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_input_device.h>
@@ -33,6 +34,7 @@ struct sample_state {
 struct sample_output {
 	struct sample_state *sample;
 	struct wlr_output *output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 	float x_offs, y_offs;
@@ -93,6 +95,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 		sample_output->y_offs = 0;
 	}
 	sample->last_frame = now;
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void update_velocities(struct sample_state *sample,
@@ -108,6 +112,7 @@ static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, destroy);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->frame.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->destroy.link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(sample_output);
 }
 
@@ -123,7 +128,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 
 	sample_output->output = output;
 	sample_output->sample = sample;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
+	sample_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	wl_signal_add(&sample_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
 	sample_output->frame.notify = output_frame_notify;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.destroy, &sample_output->destroy);
 	sample_output->destroy.notify = output_remove_notify;
@@ -139,6 +145,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void keyboard_key_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/examples/scene-graph.c b/examples/scene-graph.c
index 421986534..88dc792d0 100644
--- a/examples/scene-graph.c
+++ b/examples/scene-graph.c
@@ -10,6 +10,7 @@
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_compositor.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_scene.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_xdg_shell.h>
@@ -74,10 +75,10 @@ static void server_handle_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct output *output = calloc(1, sizeof(*output));
 	output->wlr = wlr_output;
 	output->server = server;
-	output->frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&wlr_output->events.frame, &output->frame);
 
 	output->scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(server->scene, wlr_output);
+	output->frame.notify = output_handle_frame;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->scene_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &output->frame);
 
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
diff --git a/examples/simple.c b/examples/simple.c
index d16708654..b016b7b19 100644
--- a/examples/simple.c
+++ b/examples/simple.c
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend/session.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_input_device.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
@@ -28,6 +29,7 @@ struct sample_state {
 struct sample_output {
 	struct sample_state *sample;
 	struct wlr_output *output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
@@ -78,6 +80,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
 	sample->last_frame = now;
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
@@ -86,6 +90,7 @@ static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_log(WLR_DEBUG, "Output removed");
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->frame.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->destroy.link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(sample_output);
 }
 
@@ -99,7 +104,9 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = calloc(1, sizeof(*sample_output));
 	sample_output->output = output;
 	sample_output->sample = sample;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
+
+	sample_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	wl_signal_add(&sample_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
 	sample_output->frame.notify = output_frame_notify;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.destroy, &sample_output->destroy);
 	sample_output->destroy.notify = output_remove_notify;
@@ -113,6 +120,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void keyboard_key_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/examples/tablet.c b/examples/tablet.c
index 78666fff7..fd430fb06 100644
--- a/examples/tablet.c
+++ b/examples/tablet.c
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend/session.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_input_device.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
@@ -66,6 +67,7 @@ struct tablet_pad_state {
 struct sample_output {
 	struct sample_state *sample;
 	struct wlr_output *output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
@@ -160,6 +162,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 	sample->last_frame = now;
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void tablet_tool_axis_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
@@ -261,6 +265,7 @@ static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, destroy);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->frame.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->destroy.link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(sample_output);
 }
 
@@ -273,7 +278,9 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = calloc(1, sizeof(*sample_output));
 	sample_output->output = output;
 	sample_output->sample = sample;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
+
+	sample_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	wl_signal_add(&sample_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
 	sample_output->frame.notify = output_frame_notify;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.destroy, &sample_output->destroy);
 	sample_output->destroy.notify = output_remove_notify;
@@ -287,6 +294,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void keyboard_key_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/examples/touch.c b/examples/touch.c
index b891837a4..eb5006117 100644
--- a/examples/touch.c
+++ b/examples/touch.c
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 #include <wlr/backend/session.h>
 #include <wlr/render/allocator.h>
 #include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_input_device.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
@@ -52,6 +53,7 @@ struct touch_state {
 struct sample_output {
 	struct sample_state *sample;
 	struct wlr_output *output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
 };
@@ -96,6 +98,8 @@ static void output_frame_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wlr_output_commit_state(wlr_output, &output_state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&output_state);
 	sample->last_frame = now;
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void touch_down_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
@@ -164,6 +168,7 @@ static void output_remove_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = wl_container_of(listener, sample_output, destroy);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->frame.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&sample_output->destroy.link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(sample_output);
 }
 
@@ -176,7 +181,9 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	struct sample_output *sample_output = calloc(1, sizeof(*sample_output));
 	sample_output->output = output;
 	sample_output->sample = sample;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
+
+	sample_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	wl_signal_add(&sample_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &sample_output->frame);
 	sample_output->frame.notify = output_frame_notify;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.destroy, &sample_output->destroy);
 	sample_output->destroy.notify = output_remove_notify;
@@ -190,6 +197,8 @@ static void new_output_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	}
 	wlr_output_commit_state(output, &state);
 	wlr_output_state_finish(&state);
+
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(sample_output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void keyboard_key_notify(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/include/backend/headless.h b/include/backend/headless.h
index 21df86ea6..8f564b5a9 100644
--- a/include/backend/headless.h
+++ b/include/backend/headless.h
@@ -4,8 +4,6 @@
 #include <wlr/backend/headless.h>
 #include <wlr/backend/interface.h>
 
-#define HEADLESS_DEFAULT_REFRESH (60 * 1000) // 60 Hz
-
 struct wlr_headless_backend {
 	struct wlr_backend backend;
 	struct wl_event_loop *event_loop;
@@ -19,9 +17,6 @@ struct wlr_headless_output {
 
 	struct wlr_headless_backend *backend;
 	struct wl_list link;
-
-	struct wl_event_source *frame_timer;
-	int frame_delay; // ms
 };
 
 struct wlr_headless_backend *headless_backend_from_backend(
diff --git a/include/render/vulkan.h b/include/render/vulkan.h
index 82d3e40fd..021749c27 100644
--- a/include/render/vulkan.h
+++ b/include/render/vulkan.h
@@ -67,6 +67,9 @@ struct wlr_vk_device {
 	struct wlr_drm_format_set dmabuf_render_formats;
 	struct wlr_drm_format_set dmabuf_texture_formats;
 	struct wlr_drm_format_set shm_texture_formats;
+
+	float timestamp_period;
+	uint32_t timestamp_valid_bits;
 };
 
 // Tries to find the VkPhysicalDevice for the given drm fd.
@@ -412,6 +415,12 @@ VkCommandBuffer vulkan_record_stage_cb(struct wlr_vk_renderer *renderer);
 // finished execution.
 bool vulkan_submit_stage_wait(struct wlr_vk_renderer *renderer, int wait_sync_file_fd);
 
+struct wlr_vk_render_timer {
+	struct wlr_render_timer base;
+	struct wlr_vk_renderer *renderer;
+	VkQueryPool query_pool;
+};
+
 struct wlr_vk_render_pass_texture {
 	struct wlr_vk_texture *texture;
 
@@ -436,6 +445,8 @@ struct wlr_vk_render_pass {
 	struct wlr_drm_syncobj_timeline *signal_timeline;
 	uint64_t signal_point;
 
+	struct wlr_vk_render_timer *timer;
+
 	struct wl_array textures; // struct wlr_vk_render_pass_texture
 };
 
diff --git a/include/wlr/backend/wayland.h b/include/wlr/backend/wayland.h
index 7a41b3d09..d79d79b6b 100644
--- a/include/wlr/backend/wayland.h
+++ b/include/wlr/backend/wayland.h
@@ -48,6 +48,11 @@ struct wlr_output *wlr_wl_output_create_from_surface(struct wlr_backend *backend
  */
 bool wlr_backend_is_wl(const struct wlr_backend *backend);
 
+/**
+ * Check whether the Wayland server advertises the wp_presentation protocol.
+ */
+bool wlr_wl_backend_has_presentation_time(struct wlr_backend *backend);
+
 /**
  * Check whether the provided input device is a Wayland input device.
  */
diff --git a/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_frame_scheduler.h b/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_frame_scheduler.h
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..080a34228
--- /dev/null
+++ b/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_frame_scheduler.h
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+/*
+ * This an unstable interface of wlroots. No guarantees are made regarding the
+ * future consistency of this API.
+ */
+#ifndef WLR_USE_UNSTABLE
+#error "Add -DWLR_USE_UNSTABLE to enable unstable wlroots features"
+#endif
+
+#ifndef WLR_INTERFACES_WLR_FRAME_SCHEDULER_H
+#define WLR_INTERFACES_WLR_FRAME_SCHEDULER_H
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler;
+struct wlr_output;
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl {
+	/**
+	 * Ensure that the scheduler->frame signal will be fired in the future.
+	 */
+	void (*schedule_frame)(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler);
+	void (*destroy)(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler);
+};
+
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_init(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler,
+	const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl *impl, struct wlr_output *output);
+
+#endif
diff --git a/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_output.h b/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_output.h
index 6da2c2c54..2481b9b40 100644
--- a/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_output.h
+++ b/include/wlr/interfaces/wlr_output.h
@@ -117,12 +117,6 @@ void wlr_output_finish(struct wlr_output *output);
  * output changes.
  */
 void wlr_output_update_needs_frame(struct wlr_output *output);
-/**
- * Send a frame event.
- *
- * See wlr_output.events.frame.
- */
-void wlr_output_send_frame(struct wlr_output *output);
 /**
  * Send a present event.
  *
diff --git a/include/wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h b/include/wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..f7b0ddf94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/include/wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h
@@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
+/*
+ * This an unstable interface of wlroots. No guarantees are made regarding the
+ * future consistency of this API.
+ */
+#ifndef WLR_USE_UNSTABLE
+#error "Add -DWLR_USE_UNSTABLE to enable unstable wlroots features"
+#endif
+
+#ifndef WLR_TYPES_WLR_FRAME_SCHEDULER_H
+#define WLR_TYPES_WLR_FRAME_SCHEDULER_H
+
+#include <stdbool.h>
+#include <stdint.h>
+#include <wayland-server-core.h>
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl;
+struct wlr_render_timer;
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler {
+	struct wlr_output *output;
+
+	struct {
+		struct wl_signal frame;
+	} events;
+
+	// Whether the render loop should be kept awake. True if wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame()
+	// was called since the last frame event.
+	bool needs_frame;
+
+	// private state
+
+	const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl *impl;
+
+	struct wl_listener backend_needs_frame;
+};
+
+/**
+ * The present scheduler maintains a render loop based on `wlr_output.events.present`. To wake the
+ * render loop, it emits the frame signal when the compositor's event loop is idle.
+ */
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_present_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output);
+/**
+ * The Wayland scheduler maintains a render loop based on wl_surface.frame callbacks. To wake the
+ * render loop, it emits the frame signal when the compositor's event loop is idle.
+ */
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_wl_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output);
+/**
+ * The interval scheduler maintains a render loop based on a timer. To wake the render loop, it
+ * emits the frame signal when the compositor's event loop is idle.
+ */
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_interval_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output);
+
+/**
+ * Creates an appropriate frame scheduler for the given output's backend capabilities.
+ */
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(struct wlr_output *output);
+/**
+ * Inform the scheduler that a frame signal is needed. The scheduler implementation will choose a
+ * good time to emit the signal. The signal is emitted only if this function has been called at
+ * least once since the last signal.
+ */
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler);
+/**
+ * Emits a frame signal if `wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame()` has been called since the last
+ * frame signal.
+ */
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler);
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler);
+
+/**
+ * The predictive scheduler maintains a render loop based on `wlr_output.events.present`, and
+ * schedules frame signals to arrive just before the estimated render deadline. It learns from
+ * historic render times provided via wlr_frame_scheduler_inform_render().
+ */
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_predictive_frame_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output);
+/**
+ * Provide render timing feedback to the scheduler. Must be called after each output commit.
+ *
+ * pre_render_duration_ns is the wall time from the frame signal to the start of the render pass.
+ *
+ * render_timer is the GPU render timer for this frame. May be NULL if no rendering was performed
+ * (e.g. direct scanout), in which case GPU render time is assumed to be zero.
+ *
+ * This is a no-op for non-predictive schedulers.
+ */
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_inform_render(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler,
+	int64_t pre_render_duration_ns, struct wlr_render_timer *render_timer);
+
+#endif
diff --git a/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h b/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h
index c8e44b0e6..ece2b5b10 100644
--- a/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h
+++ b/include/wlr/types/wlr_output.h
@@ -219,10 +219,6 @@ struct wlr_output {
 	// true, changes may either succeed or fail.
 	bool adaptive_sync_supported;
 
-	bool needs_frame;
-	// damage for cursors and fullscreen surface, in output-local coordinates
-	bool frame_pending;
-
 	// true for example with VR headsets
 	bool non_desktop;
 
@@ -230,8 +226,6 @@ struct wlr_output {
 	uint32_t commit_seq;
 
 	struct {
-		// Request to render a frame
-		struct wl_signal frame;
 		// Emitted when software cursors or backend-specific logic damage the
 		// output
 		struct wl_signal damage; // struct wlr_output_event_damage
@@ -252,7 +246,6 @@ struct wlr_output {
 		struct wl_signal destroy;
 	} events;
 
-	struct wl_event_source *idle_frame;
 	struct wl_event_source *idle_done;
 
 	int attach_render_locks; // number of locks forcing rendering
@@ -406,11 +399,6 @@ bool wlr_output_test_state(struct wlr_output *output,
  */
 bool wlr_output_commit_state(struct wlr_output *output,
 	const struct wlr_output_state *state);
-/**
- * Manually schedules a `frame` event. If a `frame` event is already pending,
- * it is a no-op.
- */
-void wlr_output_schedule_frame(struct wlr_output *output);
 /**
  * Returns the maximum length of each gamma ramp, or 0 if unsupported.
  */
diff --git a/include/wlr/types/wlr_scene.h b/include/wlr/types/wlr_scene.h
index f6f97cfea..86f1f7934 100644
--- a/include/wlr/types/wlr_scene.h
+++ b/include/wlr/types/wlr_scene.h
@@ -224,6 +224,7 @@ struct wlr_scene_output {
 	struct wlr_output *output;
 	struct wl_list link; // wlr_scene.outputs
 	struct wlr_scene *scene;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wlr_addon addon;
 
 	struct wlr_damage_ring damage_ring;
@@ -258,7 +259,6 @@ struct wlr_scene_output {
 
 		struct wl_listener output_commit;
 		struct wl_listener output_damage;
-		struct wl_listener output_needs_frame;
 
 		struct wl_list damage_highlight_regions;
 
@@ -268,12 +268,9 @@ struct wlr_scene_output {
 		uint64_t in_point;
 		struct wlr_drm_syncobj_timeline *out_timeline;
 		uint64_t out_point;
-	} WLR_PRIVATE;
-};
 
-struct wlr_scene_timer {
-	int64_t pre_render_duration;
-	struct wlr_render_timer *render_timer;
+		struct wlr_render_timer *render_timer;
+	} WLR_PRIVATE;
 };
 
 /** A layer shell scene helper */
@@ -592,10 +589,15 @@ void wlr_scene_output_destroy(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output);
  */
 void wlr_scene_output_set_position(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 	int lx, int ly);
+/**
+ * Replace the frame scheduler for this scene output, destroying the previous
+ * scheduler. If scene output currently needs a new frame, a frame will be
+ * scheduled on the new frame scheduler.
+ */
+void wlr_scene_output_set_frame_scheduler(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler);
 
 struct wlr_scene_output_state_options {
-	struct wlr_scene_timer *timer;
-
 	/**
 	 * Color transform to apply before the output's color transform. Cannot be
 	 * used when the output has a non-NULL image description set.
@@ -610,12 +612,6 @@ struct wlr_scene_output_state_options {
 	struct wlr_swapchain *swapchain;
 };
 
-/**
- * Returns true if scene wants to render a new frame. False, if no new frame
- * is needed and an output commit can be skipped for the current frame.
- */
-bool wlr_scene_output_needs_frame(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output);
-
 /**
  * Render and commit an output.
  */
@@ -628,15 +624,6 @@ bool wlr_scene_output_commit(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 bool wlr_scene_output_build_state(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 	struct wlr_output_state *state, const struct wlr_scene_output_state_options *options);
 
-/**
- * Retrieve the duration in nanoseconds between the last wlr_scene_output_commit() call and the end
- * of its operations, including those on the GPU that may have finished after the call returned.
- *
- * Returns -1 if the duration is unavailable.
- */
-int64_t wlr_scene_timer_get_duration_ns(struct wlr_scene_timer *timer);
-void wlr_scene_timer_finish(struct wlr_scene_timer *timer);
-
 /**
  * Call wlr_surface_send_frame_done() on all surfaces in the scene rendered by
  * wlr_scene_output_commit() for which wlr_scene_surface.primary_output
diff --git a/render/vulkan/pass.c b/render/vulkan/pass.c
index becd060f4..01e8fbd7a 100644
--- a/render/vulkan/pass.c
+++ b/render/vulkan/pass.c
@@ -295,6 +295,11 @@ static bool render_pass_submit(struct wlr_render_pass *wlr_pass) {
 
 	vkCmdEndRenderPass(render_cb->vk);
 
+	if (pass->timer != NULL) {
+		vkCmdWriteTimestamp(render_cb->vk, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_BOTTOM_OF_PIPE_BIT,
+			pass->timer->query_pool, 1);
+	}
+
 	size_t pass_textures_len = pass->textures.size / sizeof(struct wlr_vk_render_pass_texture);
 	size_t render_wait_cap = (1 + pass_textures_len) * WLR_DMABUF_MAX_PLANES;
 	render_wait = calloc(render_wait_cap, sizeof(*render_wait));
@@ -1280,6 +1285,14 @@ struct wlr_vk_render_pass *vulkan_begin_render_pass(struct wlr_vk_renderer *rend
 			VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_ALL_GRAPHICS_BIT, VK_ACCESS_SHADER_READ_BIT);
 	}
 
+	struct wlr_vk_render_timer *timer = NULL;
+	if (options != NULL && options->timer != NULL) {
+		timer = wl_container_of(options->timer, timer, base);
+		vkCmdResetQueryPool(cb->vk, timer->query_pool, 0, 2);
+		vkCmdWriteTimestamp(cb->vk, VK_PIPELINE_STAGE_TOP_OF_PIPE_BIT,
+			timer->query_pool, 0);
+	}
+
 	int width = buffer->wlr_buffer->width;
 	int height = buffer->wlr_buffer->height;
 	VkRect2D rect = { .extent = { width, height } };
@@ -1308,5 +1321,6 @@ struct wlr_vk_render_pass *vulkan_begin_render_pass(struct wlr_vk_renderer *rend
 	pass->render_buffer_out = buffer_out;
 	pass->render_setup = render_setup;
 	pass->command_buffer = cb;
+	pass->timer = timer;
 	return pass;
 }
diff --git a/render/vulkan/renderer.c b/render/vulkan/renderer.c
index e04f95a0a..72d1fb52a 100644
--- a/render/vulkan/renderer.c
+++ b/render/vulkan/renderer.c
@@ -1556,6 +1556,83 @@ static struct wlr_render_pass *vulkan_begin_buffer_pass(struct wlr_renderer *wlr
 	return &render_pass->base;
 }
 
+static const struct wlr_render_timer_impl render_timer_impl;
+
+static struct wlr_render_timer *vulkan_render_timer_create(
+		struct wlr_renderer *wlr_renderer) {
+	struct wlr_vk_renderer *renderer = vulkan_get_renderer(wlr_renderer);
+	if (renderer->dev->timestamp_valid_bits == 0) {
+		wlr_log(WLR_ERROR, "Failed to create render timer: "
+			"timestamp queries not supported by queue family");
+		return NULL;
+	}
+
+	struct wlr_vk_render_timer *timer = calloc(1, sizeof(*timer));
+	if (!timer) {
+		wlr_log_errno(WLR_ERROR, "Allocation failed");
+		return NULL;
+	}
+
+	VkQueryPoolCreateInfo pool_info = {
+		.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_QUERY_POOL_CREATE_INFO,
+		.queryType = VK_QUERY_TYPE_TIMESTAMP,
+		.queryCount = 2,
+	};
+	VkResult res = vkCreateQueryPool(renderer->dev->dev, &pool_info,
+		NULL, &timer->query_pool);
+	if (res != VK_SUCCESS) {
+		wlr_vk_error("vkCreateQueryPool", res);
+		free(timer);
+		return NULL;
+	}
+
+	timer->base.impl = &render_timer_impl;
+	timer->renderer = renderer;
+	return &timer->base;
+}
+
+static int vulkan_render_timer_get_duration_ns(
+		struct wlr_render_timer *wlr_timer) {
+	struct wlr_vk_render_timer *timer =
+		wl_container_of(wlr_timer, timer, base);
+	struct wlr_vk_renderer *renderer = timer->renderer;
+
+	// Layout: [ timestamp1, avail1, timestamp2, avail2 ]
+	uint64_t data[4] = {0};
+	VkResult res = vkGetQueryPoolResults(renderer->dev->dev,
+		timer->query_pool, 0, 2, sizeof(data), data,
+		2 * sizeof(uint64_t),
+		VK_QUERY_RESULT_64_BIT | VK_QUERY_RESULT_WITH_AVAILABILITY_BIT);
+	if (res == VK_NOT_READY || data[1] == 0 || data[3] == 0) {
+		wlr_log(WLR_ERROR, "Failed to get render duration: "
+			"timestamp query results not yet ready");
+		return -1;
+	}
+	if (res != VK_SUCCESS) {
+		wlr_vk_error("vkGetQueryPoolResults", res);
+		return -1;
+	}
+
+	uint64_t ticks = data[2] - data[0];
+	if (renderer->dev->timestamp_valid_bits < 64) {
+		ticks &= (1ULL << renderer->dev->timestamp_valid_bits) - 1;
+	}
+	return (int)(ticks * renderer->dev->timestamp_period);
+}
+
+static void vulkan_render_timer_destroy(
+		struct wlr_render_timer *wlr_timer) {
+	struct wlr_vk_render_timer *timer =
+		wl_container_of(wlr_timer, timer, base);
+	vkDestroyQueryPool(timer->renderer->dev->dev, timer->query_pool, NULL);
+	free(timer);
+}
+
+static const struct wlr_render_timer_impl render_timer_impl = {
+	.get_duration_ns = vulkan_render_timer_get_duration_ns,
+	.destroy = vulkan_render_timer_destroy,
+};
+
 static const struct wlr_renderer_impl renderer_impl = {
 	.get_texture_formats = vulkan_get_texture_formats,
 	.get_render_formats = vulkan_get_render_formats,
@@ -1563,6 +1640,7 @@ static const struct wlr_renderer_impl renderer_impl = {
 	.get_drm_fd = vulkan_get_drm_fd,
 	.texture_from_buffer = vulkan_texture_from_buffer,
 	.begin_buffer_pass = vulkan_begin_buffer_pass,
+	.render_timer_create = vulkan_render_timer_create,
 };
 
 // Initializes the VkDescriptorSetLayout and VkPipelineLayout needed
diff --git a/render/vulkan/vulkan.c b/render/vulkan/vulkan.c
index b4a5e0e11..3877ec2a7 100644
--- a/render/vulkan/vulkan.c
+++ b/render/vulkan/vulkan.c
@@ -488,10 +488,15 @@ struct wlr_vk_device *vulkan_device_create(struct wlr_vk_instance *ini,
 			graphics_found = queue_props[i].queueFlags & VK_QUEUE_GRAPHICS_BIT;
 			if (graphics_found) {
 				dev->queue_family = i;
+				dev->timestamp_valid_bits = queue_props[i].timestampValidBits;
 				break;
 			}
 		}
 		assert(graphics_found);
+
+		VkPhysicalDeviceProperties phdev_props;
+		vkGetPhysicalDeviceProperties(phdev, &phdev_props);
+		dev->timestamp_period = phdev_props.limits.timestampPeriod;
 	}
 
 	bool exportable_semaphore = false, importable_semaphore = false;
diff --git a/render/wlr_renderer.c b/render/wlr_renderer.c
index e65314ccc..ffffbb7cc 100644
--- a/render/wlr_renderer.c
+++ b/render/wlr_renderer.c
@@ -329,6 +329,9 @@ int wlr_render_timer_get_duration_ns(struct wlr_render_timer *timer) {
 }
 
 void wlr_render_timer_destroy(struct wlr_render_timer *timer) {
+	if (!timer) {
+		return;
+	}
 	if (!timer->impl->destroy) {
 		return;
 	}
diff --git a/tinywl/tinywl.c b/tinywl/tinywl.c
index fe242e1a9..d29eb2930 100644
--- a/tinywl/tinywl.c
+++ b/tinywl/tinywl.c
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_cursor.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_compositor.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_data_device.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_input_device.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_keyboard.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
@@ -74,6 +75,7 @@ struct tinywl_output {
 	struct wl_list link;
 	struct tinywl_server *server;
 	struct wlr_output *wlr_output;
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *frame_scheduler;
 	struct wl_listener frame;
 	struct wl_listener request_state;
 	struct wl_listener destroy;
@@ -603,6 +605,7 @@ static void output_destroy(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	wl_list_remove(&output->request_state.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&output->destroy.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&output->link);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(output->frame_scheduler);
 	free(output);
 }
 
@@ -641,10 +644,6 @@ static void server_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 	output->wlr_output = wlr_output;
 	output->server = server;
 
-	/* Sets up a listener for the frame event. */
-	output->frame.notify = output_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&wlr_output->events.frame, &output->frame);
-
 	/* Sets up a listener for the state request event. */
 	output->request_state.notify = output_request_state;
 	wl_signal_add(&wlr_output->events.request_state, &output->request_state);
@@ -668,6 +667,10 @@ static void server_new_output(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
 		wlr_output);
 	struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output = wlr_scene_output_create(server->scene, wlr_output);
 	wlr_scene_output_layout_add_output(server->scene_layout, l_output, scene_output);
+
+	/* Sets up a listener for the frame event. */
+	output->frame.notify = output_frame;
+	wl_signal_add(&scene_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &output->frame);
 }
 
 static void xdg_toplevel_map(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
diff --git a/types/ext_image_capture_source_v1/scene.c b/types/ext_image_capture_source_v1/scene.c
index 7d4b8928a..29f38b268 100644
--- a/types/ext_image_capture_source_v1/scene.c
+++ b/types/ext_image_capture_source_v1/scene.c
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@
 #include <wlr/interfaces/wlr_ext_image_capture_source_v1.h>
 #include <wlr/interfaces/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_ext_image_copy_capture_v1.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/util/log.h>
 
 #include "types/wlr_output.h"
@@ -134,11 +135,8 @@ static void source_stop(struct wlr_ext_image_capture_source_v1 *base) {
 static void source_request_frame(struct wlr_ext_image_capture_source_v1 *base,
 		bool schedule_frame) {
 	struct scene_node_source *source = wl_container_of(base, source, base);
-	if (source->output.frame_pending) {
-		wlr_output_send_frame(&source->output);
-	}
-	if (schedule_frame) {
-		wlr_output_update_needs_frame(&source->output);
+	if (schedule_frame && source->scene_output != NULL) {
+		wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(source->scene_output->frame_scheduler);
 	}
 }
 
@@ -246,6 +244,12 @@ static bool output_commit(struct wlr_output *output, const struct wlr_output_sta
 
 	pixman_region32_fini(&full_damage);
 
+	struct wlr_output_event_present present_event = {
+		.commit_seq = output->commit_seq + 1,
+		.presented = true,
+	};
+	output_defer_present(output, present_event);
+
 	return true;
 }
 
@@ -283,11 +287,7 @@ static void source_handle_output_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data)
 		return;
 	}
 
-	if (!wlr_scene_output_needs_frame(source->scene_output)) {
-		return;
-	}
-
-	// We can only emit frames with damage
+	// Only render when there's actual damage to commit
 	if (!pixman_region32_empty(&source->scene_output->pending_commit_damage)) {
 		source_render(source);
 	}
@@ -331,7 +331,7 @@ struct wlr_ext_image_capture_source_v1 *wlr_ext_image_capture_source_v1_create_w
 	wl_signal_add(&source->scene_output->events.destroy, &source->scene_output_destroy);
 
 	source->output_frame.notify = source_handle_output_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&source->output.events.frame, &source->output_frame);
+	wl_signal_add(&source->scene_output->frame_scheduler->events.frame, &source->output_frame);
 
 	return &source->base;
 }
diff --git a/types/meson.build b/types/meson.build
index bc3d32cd9..63e116d9b 100644
--- a/types/meson.build
+++ b/types/meson.build
@@ -50,6 +50,7 @@ wlr_files += files(
 	'wlr_export_dmabuf_v1.c',
 	'wlr_ext_background_effect_v1.c',
 	'wlr_ext_data_control_v1.c',
+	'wlr_frame_scheduler.c',
 	'wlr_ext_foreign_toplevel_list_v1.c',
 	'wlr_ext_image_copy_capture_v1.c',
 	'wlr_ext_workspace_v1.c',
diff --git a/types/output/output.c b/types/output/output.c
index 46da1f425..bf1d73ac8 100644
--- a/types/output/output.c
+++ b/types/output/output.c
@@ -367,7 +367,7 @@ void wlr_output_init(struct wlr_output *output, struct wlr_backend *backend,
 	wl_list_init(&output->layers);
 	wl_list_init(&output->resources);
 
-	wl_signal_init(&output->events.frame);
+
 	wl_signal_init(&output->events.damage);
 	wl_signal_init(&output->events.needs_frame);
 	wl_signal_init(&output->events.precommit);
@@ -397,7 +397,6 @@ void wlr_output_finish(struct wlr_output *output) {
 	wl_signal_emit_mutable(&output->events.destroy, output);
 	wlr_addon_set_finish(&output->addons);
 
-	assert(wl_list_empty(&output->events.frame.listener_list));
 	assert(wl_list_empty(&output->events.damage.listener_list));
 	assert(wl_list_empty(&output->events.needs_frame.listener_list));
 	assert(wl_list_empty(&output->events.precommit.listener_list));
@@ -430,10 +429,6 @@ void wlr_output_finish(struct wlr_output *output) {
 
 	wlr_swapchain_destroy(output->swapchain);
 
-	if (output->idle_frame != NULL) {
-		wl_event_source_remove(output->idle_frame);
-	}
-
 	if (output->idle_done != NULL) {
 		wl_event_source_remove(output->idle_done);
 	}
@@ -763,12 +758,6 @@ bool output_prepare_commit(struct wlr_output *output, const struct wlr_output_st
 		return false;
 	}
 
-	if ((state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_BUFFER) &&
-			output->idle_frame != NULL) {
-		wl_event_source_remove(output->idle_frame);
-		output->idle_frame = NULL;
-	}
-
 	struct timespec now;
 	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
 
@@ -785,11 +774,6 @@ bool output_prepare_commit(struct wlr_output *output, const struct wlr_output_st
 void output_apply_commit(struct wlr_output *output, const struct wlr_output_state *state) {
 	output->commit_seq++;
 
-	if (output_pending_enabled(output, state)) {
-		output->frame_pending = true;
-		output->needs_frame = false;
-	}
-
 	output_apply_state(output, state);
 }
 
@@ -844,37 +828,6 @@ bool wlr_output_commit_state(struct wlr_output *output,
 	return true;
 }
 
-void wlr_output_send_frame(struct wlr_output *output) {
-	output->frame_pending = false;
-	if (output->enabled) {
-		wl_signal_emit_mutable(&output->events.frame, output);
-	}
-}
-
-static void schedule_frame_handle_idle_timer(void *data) {
-	struct wlr_output *output = data;
-	output->idle_frame = NULL;
-	if (!output->frame_pending) {
-		wlr_output_send_frame(output);
-	}
-}
-
-void wlr_output_schedule_frame(struct wlr_output *output) {
-	// Make sure the compositor commits a new frame. This is necessary to make
-	// clients which ask for frame callbacks without submitting a new buffer
-	// work.
-	wlr_output_update_needs_frame(output);
-
-	if (output->frame_pending || output->idle_frame != NULL) {
-		return;
-	}
-
-	// We're using an idle timer here in case a buffer swap happens right after
-	// this function is called
-	output->idle_frame = wl_event_loop_add_idle(output->event_loop,
-		schedule_frame_handle_idle_timer, output);
-}
-
 void wlr_output_send_present(struct wlr_output *output,
 		struct wlr_output_event_present *event) {
 	assert(event);
@@ -988,10 +941,6 @@ size_t wlr_output_get_gamma_size(struct wlr_output *output) {
 }
 
 void wlr_output_update_needs_frame(struct wlr_output *output) {
-	if (output->needs_frame) {
-		return;
-	}
-	output->needs_frame = true;
 	wl_signal_emit_mutable(&output->events.needs_frame, output);
 }
 
diff --git a/types/scene/surface.c b/types/scene/surface.c
index e6ea1333a..b5d1a314e 100644
--- a/types/scene/surface.c
+++ b/types/scene/surface.c
@@ -6,6 +6,7 @@
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_compositor.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_scene.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_fractional_scale_v1.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_linux_drm_syncobj_v1.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_presentation_time.h>
@@ -364,7 +365,7 @@ static void handle_scene_surface_surface_commit(
 
 	if (!wl_list_empty(&surface->surface->current.frame_callback_list) &&
 			surface->buffer->primary_output != NULL && enabled) {
-		wlr_output_schedule_frame(surface->buffer->primary_output->output);
+		wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(surface->buffer->primary_output->frame_scheduler);
 	}
 }
 
diff --git a/types/scene/wlr_scene.c b/types/scene/wlr_scene.c
index 7231422e8..59c1500e6 100644
--- a/types/scene/wlr_scene.c
+++ b/types/scene/wlr_scene.c
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_color_management_v1.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_compositor.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_damage_ring.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_gamma_control_v1.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_linux_dmabuf_v1.h>
 #include <wlr/types/wlr_presentation_time.h>
@@ -362,7 +363,7 @@ static void scene_output_damage(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 	pixman_region32_intersect_rect(&clipped, damage, 0, 0, output->width, output->height);
 
 	if (!pixman_region32_empty(&clipped)) {
-		wlr_output_schedule_frame(scene_output->output);
+		wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(scene_output->frame_scheduler);
 		wlr_damage_ring_add(&scene_output->damage_ring, &clipped);
 
 		pixman_region32_union(&scene_output->pending_commit_damage,
@@ -1576,7 +1577,7 @@ static void scene_handle_gamma_control_manager_v1_set_gamma(struct wl_listener *
 	output->gamma_lut = event->control;
 	wlr_color_transform_unref(output->gamma_lut_color_transform);
 	output->gamma_lut_color_transform = wlr_gamma_control_v1_get_color_transform(event->control);
-	wlr_output_schedule_frame(output->output);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(output->frame_scheduler);
 }
 
 static void scene_handle_gamma_control_manager_v1_destroy(struct wl_listener *listener,
@@ -1691,7 +1692,7 @@ static void scene_output_handle_commit(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data)
 
 	if (scene_output->scene->debug_damage_option == WLR_SCENE_DEBUG_DAMAGE_HIGHLIGHT &&
 			!wl_list_empty(&scene_output->damage_highlight_regions)) {
-		wlr_output_schedule_frame(scene_output->output);
+		wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(scene_output->frame_scheduler);
 	}
 
 	// Next time the output is enabled, try to re-apply the gamma LUT
@@ -1720,12 +1721,6 @@ static void scene_output_handle_damage(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data)
 	pixman_region32_fini(&damage);
 }
 
-static void scene_output_handle_needs_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
-	struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output = wl_container_of(listener,
-		scene_output, output_needs_frame);
-	wlr_output_schedule_frame(scene_output->output);
-}
-
 struct wlr_scene_output *wlr_scene_output_create(struct wlr_scene *scene,
 		struct wlr_output *output) {
 	struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output = calloc(1, sizeof(*scene_output));
@@ -1733,6 +1728,12 @@ struct wlr_scene_output *wlr_scene_output_create(struct wlr_scene *scene,
 		return NULL;
 	}
 
+	scene_output->frame_scheduler = wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(output);
+	if (scene_output->frame_scheduler == NULL) {
+		free(scene_output);
+		return NULL;
+	}
+
 	scene_output->output = output;
 	scene_output->scene = scene;
 	wlr_addon_init(&scene_output->addon, &output->addons, scene, &output_addon_impl);
@@ -1778,11 +1779,10 @@ struct wlr_scene_output *wlr_scene_output_create(struct wlr_scene *scene,
 	scene_output->output_damage.notify = scene_output_handle_damage;
 	wl_signal_add(&output->events.damage, &scene_output->output_damage);
 
-	scene_output->output_needs_frame.notify = scene_output_handle_needs_frame;
-	wl_signal_add(&output->events.needs_frame, &scene_output->output_needs_frame);
-
 	scene_output_update_geometry(scene_output, false);
 
+	scene_output->render_timer = wlr_render_timer_create(output->renderer);
+
 	return scene_output;
 }
 
@@ -1792,6 +1792,16 @@ static void highlight_region_destroy(struct highlight_region *damage) {
 	free(damage);
 }
 
+void wlr_scene_output_set_frame_scheduler(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
+		struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	bool needs_frame = scene_output->frame_scheduler->needs_frame;
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(scene_output->frame_scheduler);
+	scene_output->frame_scheduler = scheduler;
+	if (needs_frame) {
+		wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(scheduler);
+	}
+}
+
 void wlr_scene_output_destroy(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output) {
 	if (scene_output == NULL) {
 		return;
@@ -1810,12 +1820,13 @@ void wlr_scene_output_destroy(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output) {
 	}
 
 	wlr_addon_finish(&scene_output->addon);
+	wlr_render_timer_destroy(scene_output->render_timer);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(scene_output->frame_scheduler);
 	wlr_damage_ring_finish(&scene_output->damage_ring);
 	pixman_region32_fini(&scene_output->pending_commit_damage);
 	wl_list_remove(&scene_output->link);
 	wl_list_remove(&scene_output->output_commit.link);
 	wl_list_remove(&scene_output->output_damage.link);
-	wl_list_remove(&scene_output->output_needs_frame.link);
 	if (scene_output->in_timeline != NULL) {
 		wlr_drm_syncobj_timeline_signal(scene_output->in_timeline, UINT64_MAX);
 		wlr_drm_syncobj_timeline_unref(scene_output->in_timeline);
@@ -2145,18 +2156,8 @@ static enum scene_direct_scanout_result scene_entry_try_direct_scanout(
 	return SCANOUT_SUCCESS;
 }
 
-bool wlr_scene_output_needs_frame(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output) {
-	return scene_output->output->needs_frame ||
-		!pixman_region32_empty(&scene_output->pending_commit_damage) ||
-		scene_output->gamma_lut_changed;
-}
-
 bool wlr_scene_output_commit(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 		const struct wlr_scene_output_state_options *options) {
-	if (!wlr_scene_output_needs_frame(scene_output)) {
-		return true;
-	}
-
 	bool ok = false;
 	struct wlr_output_state state;
 	wlr_output_state_init(&state);
@@ -2281,13 +2282,8 @@ bool wlr_scene_output_build_state(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 	if (!options) {
 		options = &default_options;
 	}
-	struct wlr_scene_timer *timer = options->timer;
 	struct timespec start_time;
-	if (timer) {
-		clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &start_time);
-		wlr_scene_timer_finish(timer);
-		*timer = (struct wlr_scene_timer){0};
-	}
+	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &start_time);
 
 	if ((state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_ENABLED) && !state->enabled) {
 		// if the state is being disabled, do nothing.
@@ -2434,12 +2430,11 @@ bool wlr_scene_output_build_state(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 	if (scanout) {
 		scene_output_state_attempt_gamma(scene_output, state);
 
-		if (timer) {
-			struct timespec end_time, duration;
-			clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &end_time);
-			timespec_sub(&duration, &end_time, &start_time);
-			timer->pre_render_duration = timespec_to_nsec(&duration);
-		}
+		struct timespec end_time, duration;
+		clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &end_time);
+		timespec_sub(&duration, &end_time, &start_time);
+		wlr_frame_scheduler_inform_render(scene_output->frame_scheduler,
+			timespec_to_nsec(&duration), NULL);
 		return true;
 	}
 
@@ -2459,13 +2454,12 @@ bool wlr_scene_output_build_state(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 
 	assert(buffer->width == resolution_width && buffer->height == resolution_height);
 
-	if (timer) {
-		timer->render_timer = wlr_render_timer_create(output->renderer);
-
+	int64_t pre_render_duration_ns;
+	{
 		struct timespec end_time, duration;
 		clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &end_time);
 		timespec_sub(&duration, &end_time, &start_time);
-		timer->pre_render_duration = timespec_to_nsec(&duration);
+		pre_render_duration_ns = timespec_to_nsec(&duration);
 	}
 
 	if ((render_gamma_lut
@@ -2484,7 +2478,7 @@ bool wlr_scene_output_build_state(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 	scene_output->in_point++;
 	struct wlr_render_pass *render_pass = wlr_renderer_begin_buffer_pass(output->renderer, buffer,
 			&(struct wlr_buffer_pass_options){
-		.timer = timer ? timer->render_timer : NULL,
+		.timer = scene_output->render_timer,
 		.color_transform = scene_output->combined_color_transform,
 		.signal_timeline = scene_output->in_timeline,
 		.signal_point = scene_output->in_point,
@@ -2608,24 +2602,11 @@ bool wlr_scene_output_build_state(struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output,
 		scene_output_state_attempt_gamma(scene_output, state);
 	}
 
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_inform_render(scene_output->frame_scheduler,
+		pre_render_duration_ns, scene_output->render_timer);
 	return true;
 }
 
-int64_t wlr_scene_timer_get_duration_ns(struct wlr_scene_timer *timer) {
-	int64_t pre_render = timer->pre_render_duration;
-	if (!timer->render_timer) {
-		return pre_render;
-	}
-	int64_t render = wlr_render_timer_get_duration_ns(timer->render_timer);
-	return render != -1 ? pre_render + render : -1;
-}
-
-void wlr_scene_timer_finish(struct wlr_scene_timer *timer) {
-	if (timer->render_timer) {
-		wlr_render_timer_destroy(timer->render_timer);
-	}
-}
-
 static void scene_node_send_frame_done(struct wlr_scene_node *node,
 		struct wlr_scene_output *scene_output, struct timespec *now) {
 	if (!node->enabled) {
diff --git a/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.c b/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.c
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..04db2a6e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.c
@@ -0,0 +1,502 @@
+#include <assert.h>
+#include <backend/headless.h>
+#include <stdlib.h>
+#include <time.h>
+#include <types/wlr_output.h>
+#include <wayland-client-protocol.h>
+#include <wayland-server-core.h>
+#include <wayland-util.h>
+#include <wlr/backend/wayland.h>
+#include <wlr/interfaces/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
+#include <wlr/interfaces/wlr_output.h>
+#include <wlr/render/wlr_renderer.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_frame_scheduler.h>
+#include <wlr/types/wlr_output.h>
+#include <wlr/util/log.h>
+
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	scheduler->needs_frame = true;
+	scheduler->impl->schedule_frame(scheduler);
+}
+
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_destroy(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	if (scheduler == NULL) {
+		return;
+	}
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->backend_needs_frame.link);
+	scheduler->impl->destroy(scheduler);
+}
+
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	if (!scheduler->needs_frame) {
+		return;
+	}
+	scheduler->needs_frame = false;
+	wl_signal_emit_mutable(&scheduler->events.frame, NULL);
+}
+
+static void frame_scheduler_handle_needs_frame(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, backend_needs_frame);
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(scheduler);
+}
+
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_init(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler,
+		const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl *impl, struct wlr_output *output) {
+	assert(impl->schedule_frame);
+	assert(impl->destroy);
+
+	*scheduler = (struct wlr_frame_scheduler){
+		.impl = impl,
+		.output = output,
+	};
+	wl_signal_init(&scheduler->events.frame);
+	scheduler->backend_needs_frame.notify = frame_scheduler_handle_needs_frame;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.needs_frame, &scheduler->backend_needs_frame);
+}
+
+// This struct and its methods are a common base for frame schedulers that restart their render loop
+// via an idle event source, which fires "soon", instead of using a more complex schedule. Deferring
+// the frame to an idle event is a crude way of ensuring that work done after scheduling the frame
+// gets picked up by the renderer, rather than rendering happening inside the schedule call and
+// missing out on any immediately following updates.
+struct idle_frame_scheduler {
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler base;
+	struct wl_event_source *idle;
+	// Whether the render loop is already awake, i.e. whether frames from idle events should be
+	// inhibited.
+	bool frame_pending;
+};
+
+static void idle_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(struct idle_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	scheduler->frame_pending = false;
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(&scheduler->base);
+}
+
+static void idle_frame_scheduler_handle_idle(void *data) {
+	struct idle_frame_scheduler *scheduler = data;
+	if (!scheduler->frame_pending) {
+		idle_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(scheduler);
+	}
+	scheduler->idle = NULL;
+}
+
+static void idle_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_scheduler) {
+	struct idle_frame_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(wlr_scheduler, scheduler, base);
+	if (scheduler->idle != NULL || scheduler->frame_pending) {
+		// Either we are already set up to restart the render loop or it is already running.
+		return;
+	}
+
+	struct wl_event_loop *loop = scheduler->base.output->event_loop;
+	scheduler->idle = wl_event_loop_add_idle(loop, idle_frame_scheduler_handle_idle, scheduler);
+}
+
+static void idle_frame_scheduler_set_frame_pending(struct idle_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	scheduler->frame_pending = true;
+	if (scheduler->idle) {
+		wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->idle);
+		scheduler->idle = NULL;
+	}
+}
+
+static void idle_frame_scheduler_finish(struct idle_frame_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	if (scheduler->idle) {
+		wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->idle);
+	}
+}
+
+// The present scheduler builds on the idle_frame_scheduler's logic for restarting the render loop,
+// and drives the render loop using `wlr_output.events.present`.
+struct present_scheduler {
+	struct idle_frame_scheduler base;
+	struct wl_listener commit;
+	struct wl_listener present;
+};
+
+static void present_scheduler_destroy(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_scheduler) {
+	struct present_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(wlr_scheduler, scheduler, base.base);
+	idle_frame_scheduler_finish(&scheduler->base);
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->commit.link);
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->present.link);
+	free(scheduler);
+}
+
+static void present_scheduler_handle_commit(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct present_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, commit);
+	if (scheduler->base.base.output->enabled) {
+		idle_frame_scheduler_set_frame_pending(&scheduler->base);
+	}
+}
+
+static void present_scheduler_handle_present(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct present_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, present);
+	struct wlr_output_event_present *present = data;
+	if (present->presented) {
+		idle_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(&scheduler->base);
+	} else {
+		scheduler->base.frame_pending = false;
+	}
+}
+
+static const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl present_scheduler_impl = {
+	.schedule_frame = idle_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame,
+	.destroy = present_scheduler_destroy,
+};
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_present_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output) {
+	struct present_scheduler *scheduler = calloc(1, sizeof(*scheduler));
+	if (!scheduler) {
+		return NULL;
+	}
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_init(&scheduler->base.base, &present_scheduler_impl, output);
+	scheduler->commit.notify = present_scheduler_handle_commit;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.commit, &scheduler->commit);
+	scheduler->present.notify = present_scheduler_handle_present;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.present, &scheduler->present);
+	return &scheduler->base.base;
+}
+
+// This scheduler builds on idle_frame_scheduler and uses Wayland's frame callbacks for driving the
+// render loop.
+struct wl_scheduler {
+	struct idle_frame_scheduler base;
+	struct wl_callback *frame;
+	struct wl_listener precommit;
+};
+
+static void wl_scheduler_destroy(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_scheduler) {
+	struct wl_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(wlr_scheduler, scheduler, base.base);
+	idle_frame_scheduler_finish(&scheduler->base);
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->precommit.link);
+	wl_callback_destroy(scheduler->frame);
+	free(scheduler);
+}
+
+static void wl_scheduler_handle_frame(void *data, struct wl_callback *cb, uint32_t time) {
+	struct wl_scheduler *scheduler = data;
+	assert(scheduler->frame == cb);
+	idle_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(&scheduler->base);
+}
+
+static const struct wl_callback_listener wl_scheduler_frame_listener = {
+	.done = wl_scheduler_handle_frame,
+};
+
+static void wl_scheduler_handle_precommit(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct wl_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, precommit);
+	struct wlr_output_event_precommit *precommit = data;
+	if (!output_pending_enabled(precommit->output, precommit->state)) {
+		return;
+	}
+	idle_frame_scheduler_set_frame_pending(&scheduler->base);
+	if (scheduler->frame != NULL) {
+		wl_callback_destroy(scheduler->frame);
+	}
+	struct wl_surface *surface = wlr_wl_output_get_surface(scheduler->base.base.output);
+	scheduler->frame = wl_surface_frame(surface);
+	wl_callback_add_listener(scheduler->frame, &wl_scheduler_frame_listener, scheduler);
+}
+
+static const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl wl_scheduler_impl = {
+	.schedule_frame = idle_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame,
+	.destroy = wl_scheduler_destroy,
+};
+
+static struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wl_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output) {
+	if (!wlr_output_is_wl(output)) {
+		return NULL;
+	}
+
+	struct wl_scheduler *scheduler = calloc(1, sizeof(*scheduler));
+	if (!scheduler) {
+		return NULL;
+	}
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_init(&scheduler->base.base, &wl_scheduler_impl, output);
+	scheduler->precommit.notify = wl_scheduler_handle_precommit;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.precommit, &scheduler->precommit);
+
+	return &scheduler->base.base;
+}
+
+#define DEFAULT_REFRESH (60 * 1000) // 60 Hz in mHz
+
+struct interval_scheduler {
+	struct idle_frame_scheduler base;
+	struct wl_event_source *frame_timer;
+	struct wl_listener commit;
+
+	int32_t frame_delay;
+};
+
+static void interval_scheduler_destroy(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_scheduler) {
+	struct interval_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(wlr_scheduler, scheduler, base.base);
+	idle_frame_scheduler_finish(&scheduler->base);
+	wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->frame_timer);
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->commit.link);
+	free(scheduler);
+}
+
+static void interval_scheduler_handle_commit(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct interval_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, commit);
+	struct wlr_output_event_commit *commit = data;
+	struct wlr_output *output = commit->output;
+	if (commit->state->committed & WLR_OUTPUT_STATE_MODE) {
+		int32_t refresh = output->refresh ? output->refresh : DEFAULT_REFRESH;
+		scheduler->frame_delay = 1000 * 1000 / refresh;
+	}
+
+	if (output->enabled) {
+		assert(scheduler->frame_delay != 0);
+		wl_event_source_timer_update(scheduler->frame_timer, scheduler->frame_delay);
+		idle_frame_scheduler_set_frame_pending(&scheduler->base);
+	}
+}
+
+static int interval_scheduler_handle_timer(void *data) {
+	struct interval_scheduler *scheduler = data;
+	idle_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(&scheduler->base);
+	return 0;
+}
+
+static const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl interval_scheduler_impl = {
+	.schedule_frame = idle_frame_scheduler_schedule_frame,
+	.destroy = interval_scheduler_destroy,
+};
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_interval_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output) {
+	if (!wlr_output_is_headless(output)) {
+		return NULL;
+	}
+
+	struct interval_scheduler *scheduler = calloc(1, sizeof(*scheduler));
+	if (!scheduler) {
+		return NULL;
+	}
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_init(&scheduler->base.base, &interval_scheduler_impl, output);
+
+	scheduler->frame_delay = 1000 * 1000 / DEFAULT_REFRESH;
+
+	scheduler->frame_timer = wl_event_loop_add_timer(output->event_loop,
+		interval_scheduler_handle_timer, scheduler);
+
+	scheduler->commit.notify = interval_scheduler_handle_commit;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.commit, &scheduler->commit);
+
+	return &scheduler->base.base;
+}
+
+// The predictive scheduler schedules frame signals based on historic render times, aiming to
+// start rendering as late as possible while still meeting the next vblank deadline.
+struct predictive_scheduler {
+	struct wlr_frame_scheduler base;
+	struct wl_event_source *idle;
+	struct wl_event_source *timer;
+	struct wl_listener commit;
+	struct wl_listener present;
+
+	bool frame_pending;
+
+	int64_t estimated_frame_time_ns;
+	bool has_estimate;
+
+	int64_t pending_pre_render_ns;
+	struct wlr_render_timer *pending_render_timer;
+	bool has_pending_feedback;
+};
+
+static const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl predictive_scheduler_impl;
+
+static int64_t compute_margin_ns(int refresh_ns) {
+	int64_t margin = refresh_ns / 20;
+	if (margin < 1500000) {
+		margin = 1500000;
+	}
+	return margin;
+}
+
+static void update_estimate(struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler, int64_t sample_ns) {
+	if (!scheduler->has_estimate) {
+		scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns = sample_ns;
+		scheduler->has_estimate = true;
+		return;
+	}
+
+	if (sample_ns > scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns) {
+		// React quickly to spikes
+		scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns =
+			(9 * sample_ns + scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns) / 10;
+	} else {
+		// Decay slowly
+		scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns =
+			(sample_ns + 9 * scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns) / 10;
+	}
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_consume_feedback(struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	if (!scheduler->has_pending_feedback) {
+		return;
+	}
+	scheduler->has_pending_feedback = false;
+
+	int64_t gpu_ns = 0;
+	if (scheduler->pending_render_timer != NULL) {
+		int duration = wlr_render_timer_get_duration_ns(scheduler->pending_render_timer);
+		if (duration > 0) {
+			gpu_ns = duration;
+		}
+	}
+
+	update_estimate(scheduler, scheduler->pending_pre_render_ns + gpu_ns);
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_handle_idle(void *data) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler = data;
+	scheduler->idle = NULL;
+	scheduler->frame_pending = false;
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(&scheduler->base);
+}
+
+static int predictive_scheduler_handle_timer(void *data) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler = data;
+	scheduler->frame_pending = false;
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_emit_frame(&scheduler->base);
+	return 0;
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_set_timer(struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler, int ms) {
+	if (scheduler->idle != NULL) {
+		wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->idle);
+		scheduler->idle = NULL;
+	}
+	wl_event_source_timer_update(scheduler->timer, ms);
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_set_idle(struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	wl_event_source_timer_update(scheduler->timer, 0);
+	if (!scheduler->idle) {
+		scheduler->idle = wl_event_loop_add_idle(
+			scheduler->base.output->event_loop,
+			predictive_scheduler_handle_idle, scheduler);
+	}
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_cancel(struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler) {
+	if (scheduler->idle != NULL) {
+		wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->idle);
+		scheduler->idle = NULL;
+	}
+	wl_event_source_timer_update(scheduler->timer, 0);
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_handle_commit(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, commit);
+	if (scheduler->base.output->enabled) {
+		scheduler->frame_pending = true;
+		predictive_scheduler_cancel(scheduler);
+	}
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_handle_present(struct wl_listener *listener, void *data) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler = wl_container_of(listener, scheduler, present);
+	struct wlr_output_event_present *event = data;
+
+	if (!event->presented) {
+		scheduler->frame_pending = false;
+		return;
+	}
+
+	predictive_scheduler_consume_feedback(scheduler);
+
+	if (!scheduler->has_estimate || event->refresh == 0) {
+		predictive_scheduler_set_idle(scheduler);
+		return;
+	}
+
+	int64_t refresh_ns = event->refresh;
+	struct timespec now;
+	clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC, &now);
+
+	int64_t present_ns = (int64_t)event->when.tv_sec * 1000000000 + event->when.tv_nsec;
+	int64_t now_ns = (int64_t)now.tv_sec * 1000000000 + now.tv_nsec;
+	int64_t next_vblank_ns = present_ns + refresh_ns;
+
+	int64_t margin = compute_margin_ns(refresh_ns);
+	int64_t deadline_ns = next_vblank_ns - scheduler->estimated_frame_time_ns - margin;
+	int64_t delay_ns = deadline_ns - now_ns;
+
+	if (delay_ns < 1000000) {
+		predictive_scheduler_set_idle(scheduler);
+	} else {
+		int delay_ms = (int)(delay_ns / 1000000);
+		predictive_scheduler_set_timer(scheduler, delay_ms);
+	}
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_schedule_frame(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_scheduler) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler =
+		wl_container_of(wlr_scheduler, scheduler, base);
+	if (scheduler->idle != NULL || scheduler->frame_pending) {
+		return;
+	}
+	predictive_scheduler_set_idle(scheduler);
+}
+
+static void predictive_scheduler_destroy(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_scheduler) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler =
+		wl_container_of(wlr_scheduler, scheduler, base);
+	if (scheduler->idle != NULL) {
+		wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->idle);
+	}
+	wl_event_source_remove(scheduler->timer);
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->commit.link);
+	wl_list_remove(&scheduler->present.link);
+	free(scheduler);
+}
+
+static const struct wlr_frame_scheduler_impl predictive_scheduler_impl = {
+	.schedule_frame = predictive_scheduler_schedule_frame,
+	.destroy = predictive_scheduler_destroy,
+};
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_predictive_frame_scheduler_create(struct wlr_output *output) {
+	struct predictive_scheduler *scheduler = calloc(1, sizeof(*scheduler));
+	if (!scheduler) {
+		return NULL;
+	}
+	wlr_frame_scheduler_init(&scheduler->base, &predictive_scheduler_impl, output);
+
+	scheduler->timer = wl_event_loop_add_timer(output->event_loop,
+		predictive_scheduler_handle_timer, scheduler);
+
+	scheduler->commit.notify = predictive_scheduler_handle_commit;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.commit, &scheduler->commit);
+	scheduler->present.notify = predictive_scheduler_handle_present;
+	wl_signal_add(&output->events.present, &scheduler->present);
+	return &scheduler->base;
+}
+
+void wlr_frame_scheduler_inform_render(struct wlr_frame_scheduler *scheduler,
+		int64_t pre_render_duration_ns, struct wlr_render_timer *render_timer) {
+	if (scheduler->impl != &predictive_scheduler_impl) {
+		return;
+	}
+	struct predictive_scheduler *predictive =
+		wl_container_of(scheduler, predictive, base);
+
+	predictive->pending_pre_render_ns = pre_render_duration_ns;
+	predictive->pending_render_timer = render_timer;
+	predictive->has_pending_feedback = true;
+}
+
+struct wlr_frame_scheduler *wlr_frame_scheduler_autocreate(struct wlr_output *output) {
+	if (wlr_output_is_wl(output) && !wlr_wl_backend_has_presentation_time(output->backend)) {
+		wlr_log(WLR_INFO, "wp_presentation not available, falling back to frame callbacks");
+		return wl_scheduler_create(output);
+	}
+
+	if (wlr_output_is_headless(output)) {
+		return wlr_interval_scheduler_create(output);
+	}
+
+	return wlr_present_scheduler_create(output);
+}